Development Of Intelligence

Creativity

9.1 Defining Intelligence and Creativity

• Learning Objectives

– State how intelligence and creativity are typically defined

– Analyze the accuracy and usefulness of traditional IQ tests

– Explain the most prominent theories of intelligence

– Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the theories of intelligence

The Psychometric Approach

• Psychometric approach

– Spawned the development of standardized tests of intelligence

– Intelligence • Trait or a set of traits that characterizes some people to

a greater extent than others

– Goal • To identify these traits precisely and measure them

The Psychometric Approach

• Fluid intelligence

– Ability to use your mind actively to solve novel problems

– Believed to represent raw information processing power

• Crystallized intelligence

– Acquired through schooling and other life experiences

Which of the Numbered Pieces Completes the Design?

The Psychometric Approach

• Intelligence is a hierarchy

– Top general ability factor

– Broad dimensions of abilities: fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, memory capacity, and processing speed

– Bottom specific abilities

The Psychometric Approach

• Significant contribution to the psychometric approach to intelligence

– Binet and Simon devised a large battery of tasks

– Forerunner of the modern IQ test

• Mental age

– Level of age-graded problems that the child is able to solve

The Psychometric Approach

• Binet’s test

– Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

– After Lewis Terman (Stanford University) translated and published for use with American children

– Intelligence quotient (IQ)

The Psychometric Approach

• Test norms

– Standards of normal performance expressed as average scores and the range of scores around the average

– Based on the performance of a large, representative sample

• Wechsler Scales

– WPPSI-III

– WISC-IV

A Normal Distribution Score

The Psychometric Approach

• Standard deviation

– Measure of how tightly the scores are clustered around the mean score

• Nearly 95% have scores between 70 and 130

• Fewer than 3% have scores of 130 or above

– Criterion of giftedness

• Fewer than 3% have scores below 70

– Cutoff for intellectual disability

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

• Gardner rejects IQ score as a measure of human intelligence

• Argues for eight intelligences:

– Linguistic intelligence

– Logical-mathematical intelligence

– Musical intelligence

– Spatial intelligence

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

• Gardner’s eight intelligences, cont’d:

– Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

– Interpersonal intelligence

– Intrapersonal intelligence

– Naturalist intelligence

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory and Successful Intelligence

• Sternberg proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence

– Practical

– Creative

– Analytic

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory and Successful Intelligence

• Practical component

– What is defined as intelligent behavior varies depending on sociocultural context

• Creative component

– What is intelligent when a person first encounters a new task is not the same as what is intelligent after extensive experience

– Automatization

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory and Successful Intelligence

• Analytic component

– Focuses on the information-processing skills that produce answers to questions in traditional intelligence tests

– Thinking critically and analytically

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Sternberg’s Theory of Successful Intelligence

• Sternberg expanded theory

– Successful intelligences • Establish and achieve reasonable goals

• Optimize your strengths and minimize weaknesses

• Adapt to the environment

• Use all three components of intelligence

Creativity

• Creativity

– Ability to produce novel responses appropriate in context and valued by others

– Some have concerns about what is useful to others

• IQ scores and creativity scores do not correlate very well

– IQ tests measure convergent thinking

– Creativity requires divergent thinking

9.2 The Infant

• Learning Objectives

– Name and describe methods of assessing infant intelligence

– Indicate the infant behaviors that are best connected to later intelligent behaviors and explain the reason for this connection

Bayley Scales

• Bayley Scales of Infant Development

– Measure of infant intelligence

– Motor scale

– Mental scale

– Behavior rating scale

– Developmental quotient (DQ) • Summarizes how well or how poorly the infant

performs in comparison with a large norm group

Infant Intelligence as a Predictor of Later Intelligence

• Correlations between infant DQ and child IQ are low

– Infant tests and IQ tests tap different kinds of abilities

– Maturational forces may also explain low correlations

9.3 The Child

• Learning Objectives

– Summarize the research on stability of IQ scores over the course of childhood and indicate reasons why IQ scores might change or remain the same

– Discuss the effects of poverty on children’s intellectual abilities

– Chart the path of creative abilities across childhood

The Stability of IQ Scores during Childhood

• Around age four, fairly strong relationship between early and later IQ

– Many children show ups and downs in their IQ scores over course of childhood

– IQ scores influenced by: • Motivation

• Testing procedures

• Intelligence

Causes of Gain and Loss

• Children whose scores fluctuate the most tend to live in unstable home environments

• Gainers have parents who:

– Converse more with them

– Expose them to a wide vocabulary

– Offer more encouragement

Causes of Gain and Loss

• Drops in IQ with age often occur among children who live in poverty

– Inadequate health, dental care, and nutrition

– Live in overcrowded and unsafe environments

– Families experience chronic stress

– Relationships with parents are not as supportive

– Lack opportunities for cognitive stimulation

Causes of Gain and Loss

• Children who live in poverty average 10–20 points below middle-class cohorts

• Cumulative-deficit hypothesis

– Describes how impoverished environments inhibit intellectual growth

– Negative effects accumulate over time

The Emergence of Creativity

• Preschool-aged children display high levels of divergent thought

– Increase until third grade

– Decline significantly after fifth grade

• Originality

– Ability to produce original ideas

– Sharp decline starting in sixth grade

9.4 The Adolescent

• Learning Objectives

– Describe the Flynn Effect and what factors might account for this finding

– Explain how IQ scores relate to school achievement

– Discuss how schools and parents can foster creativity during adolescence

Flynn Effect

• Flynn effect

– Phenomenon over the twentieth century: average IQ scores have increased in all countries studied

– In the U.S., increase is 3–4 IQ points per decade

– Children today are better educated

– Improved nutrition and living conditions

Flynn Effect

IQ and School Achievement

• Correlations between children’s and adolescents’ IQ scores and grades range from 0.50 to 0.86

– One of the best predictors of school achievement

– IQ scores do not predict college grades as well • Motivation

Fostering Creativity

• Ability to elaborate on ideas increases in middle school

– One form of creative thinking emphasized in classroom

• Is it possible to foster creativity?

– May only be effective if the person’s environment supports and rewards creativity

Fostering Creativity

• Creative individuals have:

– Talent and powerful motivation to develop talent

– Environments that recognize, value, and nurture their creative endeavors

• Parents can help foster creativity

– Give children freedom to explore

• Schools can help foster creativity

– Encourage idea generation, multiple correct answers, and elaboration of ideas

9.5 The Adult

• Learning Objectives

– Evaluate whether IQ scores are a useful predictor of occupational status and health status of adults

– Explain how intelligence might be expected to change over adulthood

– Analyze the connection between wisdom and intelligence and determine who might be most likely to develop wisdom

9.5 The Adult

• Learning Objectives

– Summarize the research on creative endeavors during adulthood

IQ and Occupational Success

• Professional and technical workers score higher on IQ tests than white-collar workers

• Gap between those with higher intelligence and lower intelligence widened

• Greater intelligence is required to handle more complex work

IQ and Occupational Success

IQ and Health

• People with higher IQ scores tend to be healthier and live longer

– Confirmed in multiple countries

– Explanation • Socioeconomic status

– Successfully monitoring health and properly requires intelligence

Changes in IQ with Age

• IQ remains stable into older adulthood

• Strongest predictor of intelligence in old age was intelligence at age 11

– Recently born cohorts outperform earlier cohorts

– Declines in intellectual abilities are not universal

Changes in IQ with Age

Predictors of Decline

• Terminal drop

– Poor health

– Diseases

• Unstimulating lifestyle

– Biggest declines elderly widows • Low social status

• Engaged in few activities

• Dissatisfied with their lives

Potential for Wisdom

• Wisdom (Baltes)

– Constellation of rich factual knowledge about life combined with procedural knowledge such as strategies for giving advice and handling conflicts

• Wisdom (Sternberg)

– Someone who can combine successful intelligence with creativity to solve problems that require balancing multiple interests or perspectives

Creative Endeavors

• Creative production increases from the 20s to early 40s, then gradually declines

• Peak times of creativity vary from field to field

– Humanities scholars peak in their 60s

– Productivity in arts peaks in 30s and 40s

• Creative behavior is possible throughout life

9.6 Factors that Influence IQ Scores over the Life Span

• Learning Objectives

– Analyze the research on genetic and environmental contributions to intelligence and formulate a conclusion about how these factors contribute to our intellectual abilities

– Critique the research on race and intelligence to reach a balanced conclusion about whether these two constructs are connected in meaningful ways

Genes and Environments

• Some believe IQ differences are due to genes

– Most researchers find that half of the variation in IQ scores associated with genetic differences

• Genetic influence does not mean intelligence is unresponsive to environment

• Mother’s IQ is reliably associated with her children’s IQ

– Father’s IQ is a less reliable predictor

How 10 Environmental Risk Factors Affect IQ of Children at Age 4

Race and Ethnicity

• Most studies find racial and ethnic differences in IQ scores

– Group averages

• Why do the group differences exist?

– Bias in the tests

– Motivational factors

– Genetic differences among groups

– Environmental differences among groups

Race and Ethnicity

• Stereotype threat

– Fear that that one will be judged to have the qualities associated with negative stereotypes

9.7 The Extremes of Intelligence

• Learning Objectives

– Distinguish among different levels of intellectual disability

– Summarize the likely causes of intellectual disability and what efforts might help reduce rates of intellectual disability

– Explain the criteria used to identify someone as gifted

9.7 The Extremes of Intelligence

• Learning Objectives

– Trace the likely developmental path of a gifted individual through the life span

– Compare and contrast, integrating where possible, the various theoretical perspectives on cognitive development covered in Chapters 7, 8, and now 9

Intellectual Disability

• Intellectual disability

– Significantly below-average intellectual functioning with limitations in areas of adaptive behavior such as self-care and social skills, originating before age 18

– IQ score of 70–75 or lower

• 3% of school-age children have been classified with intellectual disability

– Declining recently

Levels and Characteristics of Intellectual Disability

Giftedness

• Giftedness

– High IQ or showing special abilities in areas valued in society

– Has been identified in early childhood • Highly curious and motivated to learn

• Advanced language skills

Giftedness

• The Characteristics of Giftedness Scale

– Rapid learning

– Extensive vocabulary

– Good memory

– Long attention span

– Perfectionism

– Preference for older companions

– Excellent sense of humor

– Early interest in reading

Integrating Cognitive Perspectives

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