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ISBN 978-0-07-340673-2 MHID 0-07-340673-2
www.mhhe.com STEPHEN E. LUCAS 11e
SPeaking 11e
l u c a
S S P e a k in
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connect to the eXPerience of public speaking
M D
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#1159640 08/31/11 C Y
A N
M A
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The Art of Public Speaking
S tephen E. L ucas University of Wisconsin–Madison
ELEVENTH EDITION
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Lucas, Stephen, 1946— The art of public speaking / Stephen E. Lucas. – 11th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-340673-2 (softcover : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-07-340673-2 (softcover : alk. paper) 1. Public speaking. I. Title. PN4129.15.L83 2011 808.5’1–dc23 2011035682
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Stephen E. Lucas is Professor of Communication Arts and Evjue-Bascom Professor in the Humanities at the Univer-sity of Wisconsin–Madison. He received his bachelor’s degree from the University of California, Santa Barbara, and
his ma s ter’s and doctorate degrees from Penn State University.
Professor Lucas has been recognized for his work as both
a scholar and a teacher. His first book, Po r tents of Rebellion: Rhetoric and Revolution in Philadelphia, 1765–1776, received the Golden Anniversary Award of the National Communication
Association and was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize. His major
articles include “The Schism in Rhetorical Scholarship” (1981),
“The Renaissance of American Public Address: Text and Co n-
text in Rhetorical Criticism” (1988), “The Stylistic Artistry of
the Declaration of Independence” (1990), and “The Rhetorical
Ancestry of the Declaration of Independence” (1998), for which
he received the Golden Ann i versary Monograph Award of the
National Communication Association. His most recent book is
Words of a Century: The Top 100 American Speeches, 1900–1999 (2009).
Professor Lucas has received a number of teaching awards, including
the Chancellor’s Award for Exce l lence in Teaching at the University of
Wisconsin and the National Communication Association’s Donald Ecroyd
Award for Outstanding Teaching in Higher Education. His lecture course on
“The Rhetoric of Ca m paigns and Revolutions” is among the most popular
on campus and has twice been selected for statewide broa d cast in its
entirety by Wisconsin Public Radio. Professor Lucas is featured in the
Educational Video Group’s program on the hi s t o ry of American public
address, and he has appeared on the History Channel’s documentary on
the Declaration of Independence.
Professor Lucas has directed the introductory public speaking course
at the University of Wisconsin–Madison since 1973. Over the years he has
been responsible for numerous teaching innovations and has supe r vised
the training of hundreds of graduate assistants. In addition to participating
in public speaking workshops and colloquia at schools throughout the
United States, he has served as a judge for the major n a tional English-
language public speaking competitions in China, has lectured at numerous
Chinese universities, and has co n ducted workshops for Chinese instructors
on teaching public speaking. The Art of Public Speaking has been published in China both in translation and in English editions.
Stephen Lucas and his wife, Patty, live in Madison, Wisconsin, and have
two sons, Jeff and Ryan. His inte r ests include travel, sports, art, and
photography.
About the Author
iii
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iv
Contents in Brief SPEAKING AND LISTENING
1 Speaking in Public 3
2 Ethics and Public Speaking 29
3 Listening 47
4 Giving Your First Speech 63
SPEECH PREPARATION: GETTING STARTED
5 Selecting a Topic and a Purpose 77
6 Analyzing the Audience 97
7 Gathering Materials 119
8 Supporting Your Ideas 141
SPEECH PREPARATION: ORGANIZING AND OUTLINING
9 Organizing the Body of the Speech 165
10 Beginning and Ending the Speech 185
11 Outlining the Speech 205
PRESENTING THE SPEECH
12 Using Language 221
13 Delivery 239
14 Using Visual Aids 259
VARIETIES OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
15 Speaking to Inform 277
16 Speaking to Persuade 299
17 Methods of Persuasion 325
18 Speaking on Special Occasions 353
19 Speaking in Small Groups 365
APPENDIX Speeches for Analysis and Discussion A1
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Contents A Note from the Author xvi
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xxii
Reviewers, Symposium and Focus-Group Participants, and Contributors xxiii
PART ONE SPEAKING AND LISTENING
Chapter 1� Speaking in Public 3 The Power of Public Speaking 4
The Tradition of Public Speaking 5
Similarities Between Public Speaking and Conversation 6
Differences Between Public Speaking and Conversation 8
Developing Confidence: Your Speech Class 9
Nervousness Is Normal 9
Dealing with Nervousness 10
Public Speaking and Critical Thinking 16
The Speech Communication Process 18
Speaker 18
Message 18
Channel 19
Listener 19
Feedback 20
Interference 20
Situation 21
The Speech Communication Process: Example with
Commentary 21
Public Speaking in a Multicultural World 22
Cultural Diversity in the Modern World 22
Cultural Diversity and Public Speaking 23
Avoiding Ethnocentrism 24
Chapter 2� Ethics and Public Speaking 29 The Importance of Ethics 30
Guidelines for Ethical Speaking 31
Make Sure Your Goals Are Ethically Sound 31
Be Fully Prepared for Each Speech 32
Be Honest in What You Say 33
Avoid Name-Calling and Other Forms of Abusive Language 34
Put Ethical Principles into Practice 35
Plagiarism 37
Global Plagiarism 37
Patchwork Plagiarism 38
Incremental Plagiarism 38
Plagiarism and the Internet 40
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vi CONTENTS
Chapter 3 �Listening 47 Listening Is Important 48
Listening and Critical Thinking 49
Four Causes of Poor Listening 50
Not Concentrating 50
Listening Too Hard 50
Jumping to Conclusions 51
Focusing on Delivery and Personal Appearance 52
How to Become a Better Listener 53
Take Listening Seriously 53
Be an Active Listener 53
Resist Distractions 55
Don’t Be Diverted by Appearance or Delivery 56
Suspend Judgment 56
Focus Your Listening 56
Develop Note-Taking Skills 58
PART TWO SPEECH PREPARATION: GETTING STARTED
Chapter 5 � Selecting a Topic and a Purpose 77
Choosing a Topic 78
Topics You Know a Lot About 78
Topics You Want to Know More About 79
Brainstorming for Topics 80
Chapter 4 � Giving Your First Speech 63 Preparing Your Speech 64
Developing the Speech 64
Organizing the Speech 66
Delivering Your Speech 67
Speaking Extemporaneously 68
Rehearsing the Speech 69
Presenting the Speech 70
Sample Speeches with Commentary 71
Guidelines for Ethical Listening 41
Be Courteous and Attentive 41
Avoid Prejudging the Speaker 42
Maintain the Free and Open Expression of Ideas 42
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CONTENTS viiCOO
Chapter 6 � Analyzing the Audience 97
Audience-Centeredness 98
Your Classmates as an Audience 99
The Psychology of Audiences 100
Demographic Audience Analysis 101
Age 102
Gender 102
Religion 103
Sexual Orientation 104
Racial, Ethnic, and Cultural Background 104
Group Membership 105
Situational Audience Analysis 106
Size 106
Physical Setting 106
Disposition Toward the Topic 107
Disposition Toward the Speaker 108
Disposition Toward the Occasion 109
Getting Information About the Audience 110
Adapting to the Audience 113
Audience Adaptation Before the Speech 113
Audience Adaptation During the Speech 114
Determining the General Purpose 82
Determining the Specific Purpose 82
Tips for Formulating the Specific Purpose Statement 84
Questions to Ask About Your Specific Purpose 86
Phrasing the Central Idea 89
What Is the Central Idea? 89
Guidelines for the Central Idea 90
Chapter 7 �Gathering Materials 119 Using Your Own Knowledge and Experience 120
Doing Library Research 120
Librarians 120
The Catalogue 121
Reference Works 121
Newspaper and Periodical Databases 122
Academic Databases 123
Searching the Internet 124
Search Engines 124
Specialized Research Resources 125
Evaluating Internet Documents 127
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viii CONTENTS
PART THREE SPEECH PREPARATION: ORGANIZING AND OUTLINING
Chapter 9 � Organizing the Body of the Speech 165
Organization Is Important 166
Main Points 166
Number of Main Points 168
Strategic Order of Main Points 169
Tips for Preparing Main Points 174
Supporting Materials 175
Connectives 177
Transitions 177
Internal Previews 178
Internal Summaries 178
Signposts 178
Interviewing 129
Before the Interview 130
During the Interview 131
After the Interview 132
Tips for Doing Research 133
Start Early 133
Make a Preliminary Bibliography 133
Take Notes Efficiently 134
Think About Your Materials as You Research 136
Chapter 8 �Supporting Your Ideas 141 Examples 142
Brief Examples 143
Extended Examples 143
Hypothetical Examples 144
Tips for Using Examples 144
Statistics 147
Understanding Statistics 148
Tips for Using Statistics 151
Testimony 155
Expert Testimony 155
Peer Testimony 155
Quoting Versus Paraphrasing 156
Tips for Using Testimony 156
Citing Sources Orally 159
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CONTENTS ix
Chapter 10 � Beginning and Ending the Speech 185
The Introduction 186
Get Attention and Interest 186
Reveal the Topic 192
Establish Credibility and Goodwill 192
Preview the Body of the Speech 194
Sample Introduction with Commentary 195
Tips for the Introduction 196
The Conclusion 196
Signal the End of the Speech 196
Reinforce the Central Idea 198
Sample Conclusion with Commentary 201
Tips for the Conclusion 202
Chapter 11 � Outlining the Speech 205 The Preparation Outline 206
Guidelines for the Preparation Outline 206
Sample Preparation Outline with Commentary 210
The Speaking Outline 213
Guidelines for the Speaking Outline 214
Sample Speaking Outline with Commentary 216
PART FOUR PRESENTING THE SPEECH
Chapter 12 �Using Language 221 Meanings of Words 222
Using Language Accurately 223
Using Language Clearly 224
Use Familiar Words 224
Choose Concrete Words 225
Eliminate Clutter 226
Using Language Vividly 227
Imagery 228
Rhythm 230
Using Language Appropriately 232
Appropriateness to the Occasion 233
Appropriateness to the Audience 233
Appropriateness to the Topic 233
Appropriateness to the Speaker 234
A Note on Inclusive Language 234
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x CONTENTS
Chapter 13 � Delivery 239 What Is Good Delivery? 240
Methods of Delivery 240
Reading from a Manuscript 241
Reciting from Memory 241
Speaking Impromptu 241
Speaking Extemporaneously 242
The Speaker’s Voice 243
Volume 244
Pitch 244
Rate 244
Pauses 245
Vocal Variety 245
Pronunciation 246
Articulation 246
Dialect 247
The Speaker’s Body 248
Personal Appearance 248
Movement 249
Gestures 250
Eye Contact 250
Practicing Delivery 251
Answering Audience Questions 252
Preparing for the Question-and-Answer Session 252
Managing the Question-and-Answer Session 253
Chapter 14 � Using Visual Aids 259 Kinds of Visual Aids 260
Objects and Models 260
Photographs and Drawings 260
Graphs 261
Charts 263
Video 264
The Speaker 264
PowerPoint 265
Guidelines for Preparing Visual Aids 267
Prepare Visual Aids Well in Advance 267
Keep Visual Aids Simple 267
Make Sure Visual Aids Are Large Enough 267
Use a Limited Amount of Text 267
Use Fonts Effectively 268
Use Color Effectively 269
Use Images Strategically 269
Guidelines for Presenting Visual Aids 270
Display Visual Aids Where Listeners Can See Them 270
Avoid Passing Visual Aids Among the Audience 271
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CONTENTS xi
PART FIVE VARIETIES OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
Chapter 15 �Speaking to Inform 277 Types of Informative Speeches: Analysis and Organization 278
Speeches About Objects 278
Speeches About Processes 280
Speeches About Events 282
Speeches About Concepts 284
Guidelines for Informative Speaking 286
Don’t Overestimate What the Audience Knows 286
Relate the Subject Directly to the Audience 287
Don’t Be Too Technical 289
Avoid Abstractions 290
Personalize Your Ideas 291
Be Creative 293
Sample Speech with Commentary 293
Display Visual Aids Only While Discussing Them 271
Explain Visual Aids Clearly and Concisely 272
Talk to Your Audience, Not to Your Visual Aid 272
Practice with Your Visual Aids 273
Check the Room and Equipment 274
Chapter 16 �Speaking to Persuade 299 The Importance of Persuasion 300
Ethics and Persuasion 300
The Psychology of Persuasion 301
The Challenge of Persuasive Speaking 301
How Listeners Process Persuasive Messages 302
The Target Audience 304
Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Fact 305
What Are Questions of Fact? 305
Analyzing Questions of Fact 305
Organizing Speeches on Questions of Fact 306
Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Value 307
What Are Questions of Value? 307
Analyzing Questions of Value 307
Organizing Speeches on Questions of Value 308
Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Policy 309
What Are Questions of Policy? 309
Types of Speeches on Questions of Policy 309
Analyzing Questions of Policy 311
Organizing Speeches on Questions of Policy 313
Sample Speech with Commentary 318
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xii CONTENTS
Chapter 18 � Speaking on Special Occasions 353
Speeches of Introduction 354
Speeches of Presentation 356
Speeches of Acceptance 358
Commemorative Speeches 358
Chapter 17 �Methods of Persuasion 325 Building Credibility 326
Factors of Credibility 326
Types of Credibility 327
Enhancing Your Credibility 328
Using Evidence 330
How Evidence Works: A Case Study 331
Tips for Using Evidence 332
Reasoning 334
Reasoning from Specific Instances 335
Reasoning from Principle 336
Causal Reasoning 337
Analogical Reasoning 337
Fallacies 338
Appealing to Emotions 342
What Are Emotional Appeals? 343
Generating Emotional Appeal 344
Ethics and Emotional Appeal 345
Sample Speech with Commentary 346
Chapter 19 �Speaking in Small Groups 365 What Is a Small Group? 366
Leadership in Small Groups 367
Kinds of Leadership 367
Functions of Leadership 368
Responsibilities in a Small Group 369
Commit Yourself to the Goals of Your Group 369
Fulfill Individual Assignments 370
Avoid Interpersonal Conflicts 371
Encourage Full Participation 371
Keep the Discussion on Track 372
The Reflective-Thinking Method 373
Define the Problem 373
Analyze the Problem 374
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CONTENTS xiii
Establish Criteria for Solutions 375
Generate Potential Solutions 376
Select the Best Solution 377
Presenting the Recommendations of the Group 378
Oral Report 378
Symposium 379
Panel Discussion 379
Appendix� Speeches for Analysis and Discussion A1
I Have a Dream Martin Luther King, Jr. A2
Ramadan A5
The Horrors of Puppy Mills A7
Bursting the Antibacterial Bubble A9
My Crazy Aunt Sue A11
Questions of Culture Sajjid Zahir Chinoy A13
Notes N1
Photo Credits C1
Index I1
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xiv CONTENTS
SPEECHES
There’s an App for That (Sample Speech with Commentary) 72
Fork in the Road (Sample Speech with Commentary) 73
Surrounded by Stuff (Sample Introduction with Commentary) 195
Surrounded by Stuff (Sample Conclusion with Commentary) 201
Service Dogs (Sample Preparation Outline with Commentary) 211
Service Dogs (Sample Speaking Outline with Commentary) 216
Medical Robots: From Science Fiction to Science Fact (Sample Speech with Commentary) 294
Phony Pharmaceuticals (Sample Speech with Commentary) 318
The Dangers of Cell Phones (Sample Speech with Commentary) 346
Presenting the Congressional Gold Medal Bill Clinton 357
Accepting the Congressional Gold Medal Nelson Mandela 358
Elie Wiesel 361
I Have a Dream Martin Luther King, Jr. A2
Ramadan A5
The Horrors of Puppy Mills A7
Bursting the Antibacterial Bubble A9
My Crazy Aunt Sue A11
Questions of Culture Sajjid Zahir Chinoy A13
SPEECHES BY GENRE
INTRODUCTORY SPEECHES
Self-Introduction
There’s an App for That (Sample Speech with Commentary) 72
Introducing a Classmate
Fork in the Road (Sample Speech with Commentary) 73
INFORMATIVE SPEECHES
Surrounded by Stuff (Sample Introduction with Commentary) 195
Surrounded by Stuff (Sample Conclusion with Commentary) 201
Service Dogs (Sample Preparation Outline with Commentary) 211
Service Dogs (Sample Speaking Outline with Commentary) 216
Medical Robots: From Science Fiction to Science Fact (Sample Speech with Commentary) 294
Ramadan A5
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CONTENTS xv
PERSUASIVE SPEECHES
Phony Pharmaceuticals (Sample Speech with Commentary) 318
The Dangers of Cell Phones (Sample Speech with Commentary) 346
The Horrors of Puppy Mills A7
Bursting the Antibacterial Bubble A9
SPEECHES OF PRESENTATION
Presenting the Congressional Gold Medal Bill Clinton 357
SPEECHES OF ACCEPTANCE
Accepting the Congressional Gold Medal Nelson Mandela 358
COMMEMORATIVE SPEECHES
Elie Wiesel 361
I Have a Dream Martin Luther King, Jr. A2
My Crazy Aunt Sue A11
Questions of Culture Sajjid Zahir Chinoy A13
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T he Art of Public Speaking will pass its 30th anniversary in the course of this edition. When I wrote the first edition, I could not have imag-ined the extraordinary response the book would receive. I am deeply appreciative of the st u dents and teachers who have made it the leading
work on its subject at colleges and universities across the United States
and around the world.
In preparing this edition, I have retained what readers have identified
as the main strengths of the book. The Art of Public Speaking is informed by classical and contemporary theories of rhetoric, but it does not pr e sent
theory for its own sake. Keeping a steady eye on the practical skills of
public speaking, it offers full cove r age of all major aspects of speech prep-
aration and presentation.
It also follows David Hume’s advice that one “who would teach elo-
quence must do it chiefly by examples.” Whenever possible, I have tried to
show the principles of public speaking in action in addition to descri b ing them. Thus you will find in the book a large number of narratives, speech
excerpts, and full sample speeches that illustrate the principles of effective
public speaking.
Because the immediate task facing students is to present speeches in
the classroom, I rely heavily on e x amples that relate directly to students’
classroom needs and experiences. The speech classroom, however, is a
training ground where students develop skills that will serve them through-
out life. Therefore, I also include a large number of illustrations drawn from
the kinds of speaking experiences students will face after they grad u ate
from college.
Because speeches are performative acts, students need to be able to
view speakers in action as well as read their words on the printed page.
The Art of Public Speaking has an extensive video program that is available both on DVD and on Connect Public Speaking, the book’s innovative online learning platform. The video program i n cludes 27 full student speeches,
plus more than 60 speech excerpts. Nine of the full speeches and more
than 25 of the e x cerpts are new to this edition.
Connect also provides a wide range of teaching and learning resources in addition to the speech videos. These resources include hands-on study
tools, critical-thinking exercises, speech analysis questions, worksheets,
a s sessment forms, and more. Taken together, the book and Connect pro- vide an interactive public speaking pr o gram that meets the needs of stu-
dents and teachers alike.
The Art of Public Speaking has changed over the years in response to changes in technology, student demographics, and instructional needs. But
it has never lost sight of the fact that the most important part of speaking
is thinking. The ability to think critically is vital to a world in which person-
ality and image too often substitute for thought and substance. While help-
ing students become capable, responsible speakers, The Art of Public Speaking also seeks to help them become capable, responsible thinkers.
A Note from the Author
xvi
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FEATURES OF THE ELEVENTH EDITION
The eleventh edition of The Art of Public Speaking builds on its predecessors with expanded coverage in key areas that students find most challenging— plunging into the first speech, avoiding fallacies, using supporting materials properly, citing sources orally, developing and presenting visual aids, and taking public speaking from classroom to career. These content revisions are combined with a thorough revision of Connect Public Speaking, the pathbrea k ing online learning platform for The Art of Pub- lic Speaking at www.mcgraw-hillconnect.com . The book, Connect, and the other resources available with The Art of Public Speaking are all designed to work hand in hand. They provide an int e grated teaching and learning system that is without parallel among public speaking textbooks.
Helping students make the leap from principles to performance
THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING CONNECTS STUDENTS TO THE PRACTICE OF PUBLIC SPEAKING. Clear, consistent coverage and a friendly, authoritative voice that speaks personably to students and gives them the principles they need to create and deliver dynamic public speeches.
Print and video examples show the principles of public speaking in action rather than just descri b ing them.
■ Every chapter of The Art of Public Speak- ing has been thoroughly revised to pre- sent relevant, easy-to-grasp real-world models that speak to the newest gen- eration of students.
■ Student speeches on DVD and on Con- nect provide models of major speech genres. There are a total of 27 full stu- dent speeches (9 new to this edition), including 5 “Needs Improvement” ver- sions. There are also more than 60 vid- eos (27 new to this edition) that illustrate specific skills and concepts from the book. Icons in the margins of the main text direct readers to the appropriate videos.
■ Written and narrated by Stephen E. Lucas, Introductions, Conclusions, and Visual Aids utilizes the pri n ciples of visual learning
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to reinforce key concepts from the book. Part One of this 30-minute DVD uses excerpts from a wide range of student speeches to illustrate the principles of effective introductions and conclusions. Part Two contains examples of speakers using a variety of visual aids and presentation m e dia.
LearnSmart, Connect’s adaptive diagnostic study tool, helps stu- dents absorb and internalize key ideas from the text. LearnSmart adapts to individual students and, based on their responses, identifies strengths and weaknesses in their grasp of course content. By tracking stu- dent responses, instructors can use class time to f o cus on subjects that stu- dents find most challenging.
Helping students apply principles discussed in the text to the creation of their own speeches
THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING CONNECTS STUDENTS TO CONFIDENCE IN PUBLIC SPEAKING.
Improved coverage of persuasive speaking. Chapter 16, “Speaking to Persuade,” includes many new exa m ples, including a new full speech with commentary. Chapter 17, “Methods of Persuasion,” has a revised discussion of reasoning, plus expanded coverage of fallacies and a new sample speech with commentary.
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A full chapter on “Giving Your First Speech” (Chapter 4). This chap- ter gives students the support they need to present their first speeches at the start of the term—long before most of the principles of public spea k ing have been covered in class. Two new sample speeches with commentary provide models of introductory prese n tations.
More on supporting ideas and source citation. In response to requests from instructors, Chapter 8 provides expanded coverage of how to use sup- porting materials and how to cite sources orally. Chapter 7 takes account of new developments in online research and provides criteria for assessing infor- mation gleaned from the Inte r net.
Revised chapter on visual aids (Chapter 14). Among other changes, the popular PowerPoint appendix has been integrated into the main chapter, providing more streamlined and up-to-date coverage of visual aids.
Interactive assignments and activities in Connect take online ped- agogy to a new level. The latest version of Connect offers a wide range of assignable and assessable online activities. These include exercises for critical thinking, speech videos with questions for analysis, scrambled outline exer- cises, chapter study que s tions, key-term dia g nostics, and speech checklists and worksheets.
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Strong connection between public speaking principles and real- world application. “Using Public Speaking in Your Career”
activities place students in realistic, professional scenarios and help them make the leap from clas s room to career.
Comprehensive chapter-ending pedagogy builds critical thinking skills. Each chapter contains review que s tions and exercises for critical thinking. The exer-
cises require students to work with—and to think about—skills and concepts covered in the chapter. They are vital to the integrated teaching and learning system that has helped make The Art of Public Speaking so successful.
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Student Workbook. This popular supplement contains exercises, check- lists, worksheets, evaluation forms, and other materials designed to help stu- dents master the principles of effective speechmaking presented in the text.
Helping novices gain practice time and become eff ective public speakers
THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING CONNECTS STUDENTS TO SUCCESS IN PUBLIC SPEAKING.
Speech Capture. This cutting-edge tool lets instructors evaluate speeches live, using a fully custo m izable rubric. Instructors can also upload speech videos on behalf of students, as well as create and manage peer r e view assig n ments. Stu- dents can upload their own videos for self-review and/or peer review.
Outline Tool, with enhanced user interface. The Outline Tool guides students systematically through the process of organizing and outlining their speeches. Instructors can customize parts of the outliner, and also turn it off if they don’t want their students to use it.
Topic Helper, as well as access to EasyBib and Survey Monkey online tools. The Topic Helper helps st u dents select a topic for speech assignments. EasyBib is a Web-based tool that automates the fo r matting of citations and bibliographies. Survey Monkey, also a Web-based tool, helps students create and ma n age audience-analysis questionnaires.
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RESOURCES FOR INSTRUCTORS
The Art of Public Speaking has an exceptional set of instructional resources that provide a fully integrated, comprehensive teac h ing and learning program for instructors of all experience levels.
Easier online course management through Connect-Blackboard CMS integration. McGraw-Hill’s partne r ship with Blackboard allows for full integration of McGraw-Hill content and digital tools into Blackboard, fe a turing single sign-on capability for students and faculty.
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PREFACE xxi
Annotated Instructor’s Edition. The Annotated Instructor’s Edition pro- vides a wealth of teaching aids for each chapter in the book. It is also cross- referenced with Connect , the Instructor’s Manual , the Instructor’s R e source CD-ROM, and other supplements that accompany The Art of Public Speaking .
Instructor’s Manual. This comprehensive guide to teaching from The Art of Public Speaking contains su g gested course outlines and speaking assign- ments; chapter outlines; supplementary exercises and classroom a c tivities; feedback for all exercises and activities; and 45 additional speeches for discus- sion and analysis.
Test Bank. The Test Bank furnishes 2,600 examination questions based on The Art of Public Speaking.
PowerPoint Slides with Video Clips. Fully revised for this edition, more than 400 Powe r Point slides include text, photographs, illustrations, and video clips, and can be cu s tomized by instructors for lecture or discussion.
Online Learning Center. The Art of Public Speaking Online Learning Cen- ter, located at www.mhhe.com/lucas11e , enables teachers to download the full roster of teaching resources:
■ Instructor’s Manual
■ Test Bank (Microsoft Word files, as well as computerized EZTest versions)
■ PowerPoint slides
■ Teaching Public Speaking
■ Teaching Public Speaking Online, fully revised for the eleventh edition by Jennifer Cochrane of Indiana Unive r sity and Purdue University at Indianapolis
■ Handbook for Teachers of Non-Native Speakers of English
Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM. The Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, Power- Point slides, and other items in the O n line Learning Center are also available on this CD-ROM.
The Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, and PowerPoint slides are available on Connect, the Online Learning Ce n ter, and the Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
“’Tis the good reader,” said Ralph Waldo Emerson, “that makes the good book.” I have been fortunate to have very good readers indeed, and I would like to thank the reviewers, symposium and focus-group partic i pants, and co n- tributors whose names appear on pages xxiii–xxv for their expertise and help- ful comments and suggestions. In addition, I would like to express my gratitude both to the students at the University of Wisconsin whose speeches provided the material for many of the examples in the book and to members of the Communic a tion Arts 100 teaching staff who helped me by collecting sample speeches and by offering feedback on the tenth ed i tion. I am especially grateful to Sarah Jedd, assistant director of Communication Arts 100, for her splendid work in that capac i ty and for her many contributions to the book. Thanks go as well to Margaret Procario for her work on the Instructor’s Manual and the Test Bank; to Jennifer Cochrane for her supplement on using The Art of Public Speaking in an online course; and to Ashley Hinck, who helped with the research for this edition. Above all, I am indebted to Paul Stob, who worked with me on the book and supplements throughout the preparation of this edition. His contributions were indispens a ble. I also owe thanks to The Art of Public Speaking team at McGraw-Hill. David Patterson, Susan Gouijnstook, Mikola De Roo, Suzie Flores, and Jamie Daron joined the book this edition, and they have continued its trad i tion of excel- lence. Now in her fourth edition as marketing manager, Leslie Oberhuber continues to prove why she is one of the best in the business. Mike Ryan, Steve Debow, and Ed Stanford all provided exec u tive support and direction. In this day and age, publishing a textbook involves much more than the book itself. Working with the editorial team, Janet Byrne Smith and Adam Dweck skillfully managed the new version of Connect. Other members of the Connect team included Vicki Splaine, Debabrata Acharya, Pravarna Besa, Manish Gupta, Irina Reznick, Sanjay Shinde, Sujoy Banerjee, John Brady, Priscila Depano, Nidhi Kumari, and Suzy Cho. Meghan Campbell coordinated the addition of LearnSmart to the online resources. As production editor for the book, Carey Eisner handled a thousand details with skill and aplomb. Pr e ston Thomas oversaw the creation of a new design and cover. Natalia Peschiera coordinated the photo program, and Jennifer Blankenship located a wealth of images on a tight schedule. Vicki Malinee helped steer the suppl e ments through production. As always, my biggest debt is to my wife, Patty, whose love and support have sustained me through the years.
Stephen E. Lucas Madison, Wisconsin
xxii PREFACE
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REVIEWERS, SYMPOSIUM AND FOCUS-GROUP PARTICIPANTS, AND CONTRIBUTORS
PREFACE xxiii
Main-Text Reviewers Bob Alexander, Bossier Parish Community College Barbara Armentrout, Central Piedmont Community
College Richard Armstrong, Wichita State University Gretchen Arthur, International Academy of Technology
and Design Leonard Assante, Volunteer State Community College Jennifer Becker, University of Missouri–Columbia Kimberly Berry, Ozarks Technical Community College Patrick Breslin, Santa Fe Community College Christa Brown, Minnesota State University–Mankato Ferald J. Bryan, Northern Illinois University Jack Byer, Bucks County Community College Richard Capp, Hill College Nick Carty, Dalton State University Mary Carver, University of Central Oklahoma Crystal Church, Cisco Junior College Jennifer Cochrane, Indiana University–Purdue
University, Indianapolis Shirley Lerch Crum, Coastal Carolina Community
College Karen Dwyer, University of Nebraska–Omaha Tracy Fairless, University of Central Oklahoma Rick Falvo, College of Lake County Bryan Fisher, Francis Marion University Bonnie Gabel, McHenry County College Paul Gaustad, Georgia Perimeter College Kevin Gillen, Indiana University Donna Gotch, California State University,
San Bernardino Catherine Gragg, San Jacinto College JoAnna Grant, California State University,
San Bernardino Neva Kay Gronert, Arapahoe Community College Omar Guevara, Weber State University Karen Hamburg, Camden Community College Tina M. Harris, University of Georgia Daria Heinemann, Keiser University Marcia Hotchkiss, Tennessee State University Delwyn Jones, Moraine Valley Community College Susan Kilgard, Anne Arundel Community College Amy King, Central Piedmont Community College Patricia King, McHenry County College Linda Kurz, University of Missouri–Kansas City Jerri Lynn Kyle, Missouri State University Kathleen LeBesco, Marymount Manhattan College Mark Lewis, Riverside Community College Sujanet Mason, Luzerne County Community College Peg McCree, Middle Tennessee State University Nicki L. Michalski, Lamar University Marjorie Keeshan Nadler, Miami University Ronn Norfleet, Kentucky Community and Technical
College System–Jefferson Community and Technical Co l lege
Kekeli Nuviadenu, Bethune-Cookman College Holly Payne, Western Kentucky University Theodore Petersen, Helmick Johnson Community College Jeff Peterson, Washington State University–Pullman James (Tim) Pierce, Northern Illinois University Jean R. Powers, Holmes Community College
Barry Poyner, Truman State University William Price, Georgia Perimeter College James E. Putz, University of Wisconsin–La Crosse Jennifer Reem, Nova Southeastern University Belinda Russell, Northeast Mississippi Community
College Diane Ryan, Tidewater Community College Rhona Rye, California State Polytechnic University,
Pomona Cara Schollenberger, Bucks County Community College Jay Self, Truman State University Michael J. Shannon, Moraine Valley Community College Gale Sharpe, San Jacinto College Richard Sisson, Georgia Perimeter College Amy R. Slagell, Iowa State University Katherine Taylor, University of Louisville Cindu Thomas-George, College of Lake County Joseph Valenzano, University of Nevada, Las Vegas Jill Voran, Anne Arundel Community College Linda J. White, Central Piedmont Community College Theresa White, Faulkner State Community College Alan Winson, John Jay College of Criminal Justice Carleen Yokotake, Leeward Community College
S ymposia and Regional Focus-Group Participants Donna Acerra, Northampton Community College Krista Appelquist, Moraine Valley Community College Vera Barkus, Kennedy-King College Barbara Baron, Brookdale Community College Mardia Bishop, University of Illinois–Champaign Audrey Bourne, North Idaho College Karen Braselton, Vincennes University Melissa Broeckelman-Post, California State University–
Los Angeles Cynthia Brown El, Macomb Community College,
Center Campus Kristin Bruss, University of Kansas–Lawrence Bobette Bushnell, Oregon State University Pamela Cannamore, Kennedy-King College Helen Chester, Milwaukee Area Technical College–
Milwaukee Jennifer Cochrane, Indiana University–Purdue
University, Indianapolis Jennifer Del Quadro, Northampton Community College Amber Erickson, University of Cincinnati Kris Galyen, University of Cincinnati Joan Geller, Johnson & Wales University Ava Good, San Jacinto College JoAnna Grant, California State University,
San Bernardino Delwyn Jones, Moraine Valley Community College Amy King, Central Piedmont Community College Bryan Kirby, Ivy Technical Community College, Indiana Steven Lebeau, Indiana University–Purdue University,
Indianapolis Cindy Leonard, Bluegrass Community and Technical
College, Main Campus Tobi Mackler, Montgomery County Community College Molly Mayer, University of Cincinnati James McCoy, College of Southern Nevada–Henderson
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Peg McCree, Middle Tennessee State University Libby McGlone, Columbus State Community College Delois Medhin, Milwaukee Area Technical College–
Milwaukee Stanley Moore, Henry Ford Community College Marjorie Keeshan Nadler, Miami University John Nash, Moraine Valley Community College Ronn Norfleet, Kentucky Community and Technical
College System–Jefferson Community and Technical Co l lege
Edward Panetta, University of Georgia Alexander Papp, Cuyahoga Community College Tim Pierce, Northern Illinois University Sunnye Pruden, Lone Star College, CyFair Jeff Przybylo, William Rainey Harper College Shawn Queeney, Bucks County Community College David Schneider, Saginaw Valley State University Mike Shannon, Moraine Valley Community College Amy R. Slagell, Iowa State University Karen Slawter, Northern Kentucky University Rick Soller, College of Lake County Cindu Thomas-George, College of Lake County Patrice Whitten, William Rainey Harper College Julie Williams, San Jacinto College Josie Wood, Chemeketa Community College Henry Young, Cuyahoga Community College
C onnect Board of Advisors Sam Arenivar, MiraCosta College Katherine Castle, University of Nebraska–Lincoln Jennifer Cochrane, Indiana University–Purdue
University, Indianapolis Rich Jones, Eastern Illinois University Bryan Kirby, Ivy Technical Community College, Indiana Christine Lemesianou, Montclair State University Maria Luskay, Pace University Jeff Przybylo, William Rainey Harper College Mike Shannon, Moraine Valley Community College Julie Williams, San Jacinto College
L earnSmart Contributors Mary Carver, University of Central Oklahoma Jennifer Cochrane, Indiana University–Purdue
University, Indianapolis Ava Good, San Jacinto College Amy King, Central Piedmont Community College Marjorie Keeshan Nadler, Miami University, Lead
Subject Matter Expert
C onnect and LearnSmart Reviewers Brent Adrian, Central Community College–Grand
Island campus Richard N. Armstrong, Wichita State University Frank Barnhart, Columbus State Community College Kimberly Berry, Ozarks Technical Community College Annette Bever, Vernon College Justin Braxton-Brown, Hopkinsville Community College Melissa Broeckelman-Post, California State University–
Los Angeles Drew Butler, Middle Tennessee State University Nick Carty, Dalton State Leslie Collins, Modesto Junior College Paige Davis, Lone Star College, CyFair Denise Elmer, Southeast Community College–Beatrice
Pam Glasnapp, University of Central Missouri JoAnna Grant, California State University,
San Bernardino Stacy B. Gresell, Lone Star College, CyFair Jill Hall, Jefferson Community and Technical College,
Downtown Daria Heinemann, Keiser University Richard Jones, Eastern Illinois University Patti Keeling, Chabot College Tressa Kelly, University of West Florida Darren Linvill, Clemson University Natonya Listach, Middle Tennessee State University Jodie Mandel, College of Southern Nevada–Henderson James McCoy, College of Southern Nevada–Henderson Peg McCree, Middle Tennessee State University Libby McGlone, Columbus State Community College Terri Metzger, California State University,
San Bernardino John Nash, Moraine Valley Community College Maria Parnell, Brevard Community College–Melbourne Jean Perry, Glendale Community College Tim Pierce, Northern Illinois University William Price, Georgia Perimeter College Greg Rickert, Bluegrass Community and Technical College Thomas Sabetta, University of Kentucky Jay Self, Truman State University Michael Shannon, Moraine Valley Community College Susan Silcott, Ohio University Lancaster Richard (Kim) Sisson, Georgia Perimeter College Katherine Taylor, University of Louisville Alice Veksler, University of Connecticut–Storrs Ann Marie Whyte, Penn State University–Harrisburg Julie Williams, San Jacinto College
Design Reviewers Barbara Baron, Brookdale Community College Elizabeth Jill Coker, Itawamba Community College–
Tupelo Ferald J. Bryan, Northern Illinois University Jack Byer, Bucks County Community College Terri Helmick, Johnson County Community College Steven King, Ivy Technical Community College, Indiana Elizabeth Rumschlag, Baker College, Auburn Hills David Simon, Northern Illinois University Katherine Taylor, University of Louisville Kristi Whitehill, Ivy Technical Community College,
Indiana
Public-Speaking Survey Participants Bob Alexander, Bossier Parish Community College Barbara Armentrout, Central Piedmont Community
College Richard N. Armstrong, Brevard Community College–
Titusville Barbara Baron, Brookdale Community College Kimberly Berry, Ozarks Technical Community College Laura Berry, Pearl River Community College Molly Brown, Clinton Community College Ferald J. Bryan, Northern Illinois University Jack Byer, Bucks County Community College Rebecca Carlton, Indiana University Southeast Mary Carver, University of Central Oklahoma Helen Chester, Milwaukee Area Technical College
xxiv PREFACE
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Cerbrina Chou, Chemeketa Community College Melissa Click, University of Missouri–Columbia Ron Compton, Triton College Audrey Deterding, Indiana University Southeast Kelly Driskell, Trinity Valley Community College James Duncan, Anderson University Karen Dwyer, University of Nebraska, Omaha Rick Falvo, College of Lake County Tori Forncrook, Georgia Perimeter College Rebecca J. Franco, Indiana University Southeast Meredith Frank, La Salle University Bonnie Gabel, McHenry County College Jodi Gaete, Suffolk County Community College Colleen Garside, Weber State University Paul Gaustad, Georgia Perimeter College Jeffrey Gentry, Rogers State University Pamela M. Glasnapp, University of Central Missouri Robert Glenn, III, Kentucky Community and Technical
College System–Owensboro Community and Technical College
Ava Good, San Jacinto College Thomas Green, Faulkner State Community College Neva Kay Gronert, Arapahoe Community College William F. Harlow, University of Texas–Permian Basin Kate Harris, Loyola University–Chicago ; Roosevelt
University Tina Harris, University of Georgia Terri Helmick, Johnson County Community College Marcia Hotchkiss, Tennessee State University Dr. David Johnson, University of Maryland Eastern Shore Brenda Jones, Franklin University Kate Kane, Northeastern Illinois University Amy King, Central Piedmont Community College Patricia King, McHenry County College Sandy King, Anne Arundel Community College Vijay Krishna, College of the Canyons Linda Kurz, University of Missouri–Kansas City Abby Lackey, Jackson State Community College Victoria Leonard, Cape Fear Community College Sujanet Mason, Luzerne County Community College Wolfgang Mcaninch-Runzi, University of Texas–
Permian Basin Alison McCrowell Lietzenmayer, Old Dominion
University
Nicki Michalski, Lamar University–Beaumont Diane Miller, Finlandia University; Michigan Techno-
logical University Holly Miller, University of Nebraska–Omaha Stanley Moore, Henry Ford Community College David Moss, Mt. San Jacinto College–Menifee Heidi Murphy, Central New Mexico Community College Ulysses Newkirk, Kentucky Community and Technical
College System–Owensboro Community and Technical College
Ronn Norfleet, Kentucky Community and Technical College System
Dr. Lisa M. Orick-Martinez, Central New Mexico Community College
Maria Parnell, Brevard Community College–Melbourne Jeff Przybylo, William Rainey Harper College Jason Andrew Ramsey, Indiana University Southeast Pamela J. Reid, Copiah-Lincoln Community College Cynthia Robinson-Moore, University of Nebraska–
Omaha Rhona Rye, California State Polytechnic University,
Pomona Thomas J. Sabetta, Cape Fear Community College Jay Self, Truman State University Alisa Shubb, University of California, Davis James Spurrier, Vincennes University Katherine Taylor, University of Louisville Lisa Turowski, Towson University Alice Veksler, University of Connecticut–Storrs Tom Vickers, Embry Riddle Aero University–Daytona
Beach Janice M. Vierk, Metropolitan Community College–
Omaha Myra H. Walters, Edison State College Stephanie Webster, University of Florida, Gainesville Linda J. White, Central Piedmont Community College Theresa White, Faulkner State Community College Cicely Wilson, Victory University (formerly Crichton
College) Alan Winson, John Jay College of Criminal Justice Josie Wood, Chemeketa Community College Tina Zagara, Georgia Perimeter College
PREFACE xxv
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The Art of Public Speaking
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3
Advantages of Visual Aids Kinds of Visual Aids
Guidelines for Preparing Visual Aids
Guidelines for Presenting Visual Aids
Speaking in Public
1
Visual Aids Aids
Preparing
Presenting
The Power of Public Speaking
The Tradition of Public Speaking
Similarities Between Public Speaking and Conversation
Differences Between Public Speaking and Conversation
Developing Confidence: Your Speech Class
Public Speaking and Critical Thinking
The Speech Communication Process
Public Speaking in a Multicultural World
G rowing up in a tough neighborhood in the
South Bronx, Geoffrey Canada had no inten-
tion of becoming a public speaker. A good
student, he went to college at Bowdoin and then to
graduate school at Harvard, where he earned a mas-
ter’s degree in education. After teaching in New
Hampshire and Boston, he returned to New York City,
where in 1990 he founded the Harlem Children’s Zone.
Called “one of the biggest social experiments of
our time” by the New York Times Magazine , the Harlem Children’s Zone seeks not just to educate children, but
to develop a community system that addresses issues
such as health care, violence, substance abuse, and job
training. Over the years, Canada has raised more than
$100 million for the project, and he has helped change
the lives of thousands of kids and families.
How has Canada achieved all this? Partly through
his education, his commitment to children, and his seem-
ingly limitless energy. But just as important is his ability
to communicate with people through public speaking,
which has been a primary vehicle for spreading his mes-
sage. He has been described as a “charismatic, passion-
ate, eloquent” speaker who leaves his audiences “awed.”
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4 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public
If you had asked Geoffrey Canada early in his life, “Do you see yourself as a major public speaker?” he probably would have laughed at the idea. Yet today he gives more than 100 presentations a year. Along the way, he has spoken at the White House, has lectured at Harvard and Princeton, and has addressed the Aspen Institute and the Google International Zeitgeist. He has also appeared on 60 Minutes and is featured in the film Waiting for Superman .
The Power of Public Speaking
Throughout history people have used public speaking as a vital means of communication. What the Greek leader Pericles said more than 2,500 years ago is still true today: “One who forms a judgment on any point but cannot explain” it clearly “might as well never have thought at all on the subject.” 1 Public speaking, as its name implies, is a way of making your ideas public— of sharing them with other people and of influencing other people. During modern times, many women and men around the globe have spread their ideas and influence through public speaking. In the United States, the list includes Franklin Roosevelt, Billy Graham, Cesar Chavez, Barbara Jordan, Ronald Reagan, Martin Luther King, Hillary Clinton, and Barack Obama. In other countries, we see the power of public speaking employed by such peo- ple as former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, South African leader Nelson Mandela, Burmese democracy champion Aung San Suu Kyi, and Kenyan environmentalist and Nobel Prize winner Wangari Maathai. As you read these names, you may think to yourself, “That’s fine. Good for them. But what does that have to do with me? I don’t plan to be a presi- dent or a preacher or a crusader for any cause.” Nevertheless, the need for public speaking will almost certainly touch you sometime in your life—maybe tomorrow, maybe not for five years. Can you imagine yourself in any of these situations?
You are one of seven management trainees in a large corporation. One of you
will get the lower-management job that has just opened. There is to be a large
staff meeting at which each of the trainees will discuss the project he or she has
been developing. One by one your colleagues make their presentations. They have
no experience in public speaking and are intimidated by the higher-ranking
managers present. Their speeches are stumbling and awkward. You, however, call
upon all the skills you learned in your public speaking course. You deliver an
informative talk that is clear, well reasoned, and articulate. You get the job.
One of your children has a learning disability. You hear that your local school
board has decided, for budget reasons, to eliminate the special teacher who has
been helping your child. At an open meeting of the school board, you stand up
and deliver a thoughtful, compelling speech on the necessity for keeping the
special teacher. The school board changes its mind.
You are the assistant manager in a branch office of a national company. Your
immediate superior, the branch manager, is about to retire, and there will be a
retirement dinner. All the executives from the home office will attend. As his close
working associate, you are asked to give a farewell toast at the party. You prepare
and deliver a speech that is both witty and touching—a perfect tribute to your
View John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King, Ronald Reagan, Barbara Jordan, and other speakers in the online Media Library for this chapter (Video 1.1)
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The Tradition of Public Speaking 5
boss. After the speech, everyone applauds enthusiastically, and a few people have
tears in their eyes. The following week you are named branch manager.
Fantasies? Not really. Any of these situations could occur. In a recent survey of more than 300 business leaders, the ability to communicate effectively— including public speaking—was ranked first among the skills of college grad- uates sought by employers. In another survey, the American Management Association asked 2,000 managers and executives to rank the skills most essential in today’s workplace. What was at the top of their list? Communica- tion skills. 2 The importance of such skills is true across the board—for accountants and architects, teachers and technicians, scientists and stockbrokers. Even in highly specialized fields such as civil and mechanical engineering, employers consistently rank the ability to communicate above technical knowledge when deciding whom to hire and whom to promote. Businesses are also asking people to give more speeches in the early stages of their careers, and many young professionals are using public speaking as a way to stand out in today’s highly competitive job market. 3 In fact, the ability to speak effectively is so prized that college graduates are increasingly being asked to give a presentation as part of their job interview. Nor has the growth of the Internet and other new technologies reduced the need for public speaking. In this age of e-mail and Twitter, businesses are concerned that college graduates are losing the ability to talk in a professional way. As career expert Lindsey Pollak states, “It’s so rare to find somebody who has that combination of really good technical skills and really good verbal communication skills. You will be head and shoulders above your colleagues if you can combine those two.” 4 The same is true in community life. Public speaking is a vital means of civic engagement. It is a way to express your ideas and to have an impact on issues that matter in society. As a form of empowerment, it can—and often does—make a difference in things people care about very much. The key phrase here is “make a difference.” This is what most of us want to do in life—to make a difference, to change the world in some small way. Public speaking offers you an opportunity to make a difference in something you care about very much.
The Tradition of Public Speaking
Given the importance of public speaking, it’s not surprising that it has been taught and studied around the globe for thousands of years. Almost all cul- tures have an equivalent of the English word “orator” to designate someone with special skills in public speaking. The oldest known handbook on effec- tive speech was written on papyrus in Egypt some 4,500 years ago. Eloquence was highly prized in ancient India, Africa, and China, as well as among the Aztecs and other pre-European cultures of North and South America. 5 In classical Greece and Rome, public speaking played a central role in education and civic life. It was also studied extensively. Aristotle’s Rhetoric, composed during the third century B.C. , is still considered the most important work on its subject, and many of its principles are followed by speakers (and
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6 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public
writers) today. The great Roman leader Cicero used his speeches to defend liberty and wrote several works about oratory in general. Over the centuries, many other notable thinkers have dealt with issues of rhetoric, speech, and language—including the Roman educator Quintil- ian, the Christian preacher St. Augustine, the medieval writer Christine de Pizan, the British philosopher Francis Bacon, and the American critic Kenneth Burke. In recent years, communication researchers have provided an increasingly scientific basis for understanding the methods and strategies of effective speech. Your immediate objective is to apply those methods and strategies in your classroom speeches. What you learn, however, will be applicable long after you leave college. The principles of public speaking are derived from a long tradition and have been confirmed by a substantial body of research. The more you know about those principles, the more effective you will be in your own speeches—and the more effective you will be in listening to the speeches of other people.
Similarities Between Public Speaking and Conversation
How much time do you spend each day talking to other people? The average adult spends about 30 percent of her or his waking hours in conversation. By the time you read this book, you will have spent much of your life perfecting the art of conversation. You may not realize it, but you already employ a wide range of skills when talking to people. These skills include the following:
1. Organizing your thoughts logically. Suppose you were giving someone directions to get to your house. You wouldn’t do it this way:
When you turn off the highway, you’ll see a big diner on the left. But before
that, stay on the highway to Exit 67. Usually a couple of the neighbors’ dogs
are in the street, so go slow after you turn at the blinking light. Coming from
your house you get on the highway through Maple Street. If you pass the taco
stand, you’ve gone too far. The house is blue.
Instead, you would take your listener systematically, step by step, from his or her house to your house. You would organize your message.
2. Tailoring your message to your audience. You are a geology major. Two people ask you how pearls are formed. One is your roommate; the other is your nine-year-old niece. You answer as follows:
To your roommate: “When any irritant, say a grain of sand, gets inside the oys-
ter’s shell, the oyster automatically secretes a substance called nacre, which is
principally calcium carbonate and is the same material that lines the oyster’s
shell. The nacre accumulates in layers around the irritant core to form the pearl.”
To your niece: “Imagine you’re an oyster on the ocean floor. A grain of sand
gets inside your shell and makes you uncomfortable. So you decide to cover it
up. You cover it with a material called mother-of-pearl. The covering builds up
around the grain of sand to make a pearl.”
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Similarities Between Public Speaking and Conversation 7
3. Telling a story for maximum impact. Suppose you are telling a friend about a funny incident at last week’s football game. You don’t begin with the punch line (“Keisha fell out of the stands right onto the field. Here’s how it started. . . .”). Instead, you carefully build up your story, adjusting your words and tone of voice to get the best effect.
4. Adapting to listener feedback. Whenever you talk with someone, you are aware of that person’s verbal, facial, and physical reactions. For example:
You are explaining an interesting point that came up in biology class. Your lis-
tener begins to look confused, puts up a hand as though to stop you, and says
“Huh?” You go back and explain more clearly.
A friend has asked you to listen while she practices a speech. At the end you tell
her, “There’s just one part I really don’t like—that quotation from the attorney gen-
eral.” Your friend looks very hurt and says, “That was my favorite part!” So you say,
“But if you just worked the quotation in a little differently, it would be wonderful.”
Each day, in casual conversation, you do all these things many times with- out thinking about them. You already possess these communication skills. And these are among the most important skills you will need for public speaking. To illustrate, let’s return briefly to one of the hypothetical situations at the beginning of this chapter. When addressing the school board about the need for a special teacher:
■ You organize your ideas to present them in the most persuasive manner. You steadily build up a compelling case about how the teacher benefits the school.
■ You tailor your message to your audience. This is no time to launch an impassioned defense of special education in the United States. You must show how the issue is important to the people in that very room—to their children and to the school.
Many skills used in conversation also
apply in public speaking. As you learn
to speak more effectively, you may
also learn to communicate more
effectively in other situations.
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8 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public
■ You tell your story for maximum impact. Perhaps you relate an anecdote to demonstrate how much your child has improved. You also have statistics to show how many other children have been helped.
■ You adapt to listener feedback. When you mention the cost of the special teacher, you notice sour looks on the faces of the school board members. So you patiently explain how small that cost is in relation to the overall school budget.
In many ways, then, public speaking requires the same skills used in ordinary conversation. Most people who communicate well in daily talk can learn to communicate just as well in public speaking. By the same token, training in public speaking can make you a more adept communicator in a variety of situations, such as conversations, classroom discussions, business meetings, and interviews.
Differences Between Public Speaking and Conversation
Despite their similarities, public speaking and everyday conversation are not identical. Imagine that you are telling a story to a friend. Then imagine your- self telling the story to a group of seven or eight friends. Now imagine telling the same story to 20 or 30 people. As the size of your audience grows, you will find yourself adapting to three major differences between conversation and public speaking:
1. Public speaking is more highly structured. It usually imposes strict time limitations on the speaker. In most cases, the situation does not allow listen- ers to interrupt with questions or commentary. The speaker must accomplish her or his purpose in the speech itself. In preparing the speech, the speaker must anticipate questions that might arise in the minds of listeners and answer them. Consequently, public speaking demands much more detailed planning and preparation than ordinary conversation.
2. Public speaking requires more formal language. Slang, jargon, and bad grammar have little place in public speeches. As committed as he is to improv- ing the quality of education in urban schools, when Geoffrey Canada speaks to a legislative committee, he doesn’t say, “We’ve got to get every damn incompetent teacher out of the classroom!” Listeners usually react negatively to speakers who do not elevate and polish their language when addressing an audience. A speech should be “special.”
3. Public speaking requires a different method of delivery. When conversing informally, most people talk quietly, interject stock phrases such as “like” and “you know,” adopt a casual posture, and use what are called vocalized pauses (“uh,” “er,” “um”). Effective public speakers, however, adjust their voices to be heard clearly throughout the audience. They assume a more erect posture. They avoid distracting mannerisms and verbal habits.
With study and practice, you will be able to master these differences and expand your conversational skills into speechmaking. Your speech class will provide the opportunity for this study and practice.
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Developing Confidence: Your Speech Class 9
Developing Confidence: Your Speech Class
One of the major concerns of students in any speech class is stage fright. We may as well face the issue squarely. Many people who converse easily in all kinds of everyday situations become frightened at the idea of standing up before a group to make a speech. If you are worried about stage fright, you may feel better knowing that you are not alone. A 2001 Gallup Poll asked Americans to list their greatest fears. Forty percent identified speaking before a group as their top fear, exceeded only by the 51 percent who said they were afraid of snakes. A 2005 survey produced similar results, with 42 percent of respondents being terrified by the prospect of speaking in public. In comparison, only 28 percent said they were afraid of dying. 6 i n a different study, researchers concentrated on social situations and, again, asked their subjects to list their greatest fears. More than 9,000 people were interviewed. Here is the ranking of their answers: 7
Greatest Fear
Public speaking
Speaking up in a meeting or class
Meeting new people
Talking to people in authority
Important examination or interview
Going to parties
Talking with strangers
Again, speechmaking is at the top in provoking anxiety.
NERVOUSNESS IS NORMAL If you feel nervous about giving a speech, you are in very good company. Some of the greatest public speakers in history have suffered from stage fright, including Abraham Lincoln, Margaret Sanger, and Winston Churchill. The famous Roman orator Cicero said, “I turn pale at the outset of a speech and quake in every limb and in my soul.” 8 Oprah Winfrey, Conan O’Brien, and Jay Leno all report being anxious about speaking in public. Early in his career, Leonardo DiCaprio was so ner- vous about giving an acceptance speech that he hoped he would not win the Academy Award for which he had been nominated. Eighty-one percent of business executives say public speaking is the most nerve-wracking experience they face. 9 What comedian Jerry Seinfeld said in jest sometimes seems literally true: “Given a choice, at a funeral most of us would rather be the one in the coffin than the one giving the eulogy.” Actually, most people tend to be anxious before doing something impor- tant in public. Actors are nervous before a play, politicians are nervous before a campaign speech, athletes are nervous before a big game. The ones who succeed have learned to use their nervousness to their advantage. Listen to
stage fright
Anxiety over the prospect of giving a
speech in front of an audience.
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10 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public
tennis star Rafael Nadal speaking after his 2010 Wimbledon title match against Tomas Berdych. “I was a little bit more nervous than usual,” he admitted. “But if you are not nervous in the finals of Wimbledon, you are not human!” Putting his butterflies to good use, Nadal beat Berdych in straight sets to claim his second Wimbledon championship. Much the same thing happens in speechmaking. Most experienced speak- ers have stage fright before taking the floor, but their nervousness is a healthy sign that they are getting “psyched up” for a good effort. Novelist and lecturer I. A. R. Wylie once said: “After many years of practice I am, I suppose, really a ‘practiced speaker.’ But I rarely rise to my feet without a throat constricted with terror and a furiously thumping heart. When, for some reason, I am cool and self-assured, the speech is always a failure.” In other words, it is perfectly normal—even desirable—to be nervous at the start of a speech. Your body is responding as it would to any stressful situation—by producing extra adrenaline. This sudden shot of adrenaline is what makes your heart race, your hands shake, your knees knock, and your skin perspire. Every public speaker experi- ences all these reactions to some extent. The question is: How can you con- trol your nervousness and make it work for you rather than against you?
DEALING WITH NERVOUSNESS Rather than trying to eliminate every trace of stage fright, you should aim at transforming it from a negative force into what one expert calls positive nervousness —“a zesty, enthusiastic, lively feeling with a slight edge to it. . . . It’s still nervousness, but it feels different. You’re no longer victimized by it; instead, you’re vitalized by it. You’re in control of it.” 10 Don’t think of yourself as having stage fright. Instead, think of it as “stage excitement” or “stage enthusiasm.” 11 It can help you get focused and ener- gized in the same way that it helps athletes, musicians, and others get primed for a game or a concert. Actress Jane Lynch, talking about her gig hosting Saturday Night Live , said that she got through it with “that perfect cocktail of nervousness and excitement.” Think of that cocktail as a normal part of giv- ing a successful speech. Here are six time-tested ways you can turn your nervousness from a neg- ative force into a positive one.
Acquire Speaking Experience You have already taken the first step. You are enrolled in a public speaking course, where you will learn about speechmaking and gain speaking experi- ence. Think back to your first day at kindergarten, your first date, your first day at a new job. You were probably nervous in each situation because you were facing something new and unknown. Once you became accustomed to the situation, it was no longer threatening. So it is with public speaking. For most students, the biggest part of stage fright is fear of the unknown. The more you learn about public speaking and the more speeches you give, the less threatening speechmaking will become. Of course, the road to confidence will sometimes be bumpy. Learning to give a speech is not much different from learning any other skill—it proceeds by trial and error. The purpose of your speech class is to shorten the process, to minimize the errors, to give you a nonthreatening arena—a sort of laboratory— in which to undertake the “trial.”